U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
National Institute of Justice


Ethical Use of Information Technologies in Education:  Important
Issues for America's Schools


by
Jay P. Sivin
Ellen R. Bialo



April 1992




Issues and Practices in Criminal Justice is a publication of the
National Institute of Justice.  Designed for the criminal justice
professional, each Issues and Practices report presents the program
options and management issues in a topic area, based on a review of
research and evaluation findings, operational experience, and
expert opinion in the subject.  The intent is to provide criminal
justice managers and administrators with the information to make
informed choices in planning, implementing , and improving programs
and practice.

Prepared for the National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of
Justice, by the Institute for Law and Justice, Inc. under contract
number OJP-91-C-005  Points of view or opinions stated in this
document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent
the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice
or the U.S. Department of Education.  Authors are Jay P. Sivin and
Ellen R. Bialo of Interactive Educational Systems Design (IESD),
Inc. of New York, NY.

The Assistant Attorney General, Office of Justice Programs,
establishes the  policies and priorities, and manages and
coordinates the activities of the Bureau of Justice Assistance,
Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Institute of Justice, Office
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for
Victims of Crime.


National Institute of Justice
Charles B. DeWitt
Director

Program Monitor

Jonathan Budd
National Institute of Justice
Washington, D.C.

Foreword

Plato posed the central ethics issue addressed in this publication
in the Republic:  suppose you had a ring which when you turned the
stone, made you invisible.  Why then should you act justly?  The
same question faces today's computer user who, with technology's
aid, can effectively become invisible.  The problem was ancient in
Plato's time; the philosopher makes his point with the Ring of
Gyges already a legend in 400 B.C.

The ethical questions we face today are as old as the pyramids, and
the circumstances as new as the latest piece of computer software. 
How do we best assure the just and effective use of the new
technologies that are an increasingly vital part of both our
personal and professional lives?

Preparing this Nation's youth to be productive and thoughtful
adults, able to compete successfully in a global economy and to
exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship, is a key
objective of the President's National Education Goals and AMERICA
2000 education strategy.  Achieving this objective will require
educating students in the uses of computers and other new
technologies which are opening career possibilities unheard of just
a few years ago.  The Nation's elementary and secondary schools are
rising to the challenge.  Computers are now part of the
instructional program in the majority of American schools; and a
significant percentage of students are already computer literate.

The increasing use and importance of computers has resulted in the
rapid growth of such illegitimate practices as piracy, fraud,
information destruction, and telecommunications abuse.  Computer
crime is generally on the rise, creating increasingly serious
problems for law enforcement officials.  Prevention through
education in the responsible use of computers is an important part
of the effort to reduce computer crime.

That is why the Department of Education and the Department of
Justice have formed a partnership to promote school programs on the
ethical uses of new technologies.  This report, the first of the
partnership between the Office for Educational Research and
Improvement and the National Institute of Justice, is designed to
assist schools in preparing a strategy to address
technology-related ethical issues.

The ethical questions posed by our new technological circumstances
are important ones--and many of them appear in shapes unfamiliar to
teachers and students alike.  We believe that ethics issues related
to the use of these technologies need to be addressed from
kindergarten through graduation--and computer ethics education
programs need to involve students, teachers, administrators, school
board members, parents, and community and business leaders. The
challenge is clear and the message is positive:  computers are
great tools when used  responsibly.

Diane Ravitch
Assistant Secretary of Education
   for Educational Research and 
   Improvement

Charles B. DeWitt
Director, National Institute of Justice


Technology Ethics for Schools Advisory Panel

Virginia Baldau
Director
Research Applications and Training Division
National Institute of Justice

Sally Bowman
Director
Computer Learning Foundation

Jonathan Budd
Program Manager
Computer Crime
National Institute of Justice

Richard Hollinger 
Department of Sociology
University of Florida

Kathleen M. Hurley
Education Marketing
IBM

Deborah Johnson
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Larry Martin
Executive Secretary
Subcommittee for Automated Information System Security
National Security Agency

Jim Mecklenburger
Institute for the Transfer of Technology to Education
National School Board Association
Steve Purdy
Agent
Secret Service

Paul Resta, Ph.D.
Director
Learning Resource Center
University of Texas

Allen Schmieder
Director
Eisenhower National Program for Mathematics and Science Education
U.S. Department of Education

Connie Stout
Education Program Director
Division of Technology Development
Texas Education Agency

Gail Thackeray
Deputy County Attorney 
Maricopa County Arizona

Cheryl Williams
Director
Technology Leadership Network
National School Board Association

Stanley Zenor
Executive Director
Association for Educational Communication and Technology

Table of Contents


Foreword         iii

Advisory Panel   v

Ethical Use of Information Technologies in Education        1

The Challenge    3

How Technology Can Affect Ethical and
Unethical Behavior    5

Confusion Over Intellectual Property        6

What Schools Can Do   7

      Defining and Implementing School Policy    7
      Incorporating Technology Ethics Issues 
          Into the Curriculum    16

Summary          24

Endnotes         27

References       29

Appendix
      List of Associations and Agencies to Contact for 
          Further Information    33

List of Exhibits

Box 1.     The Impact of Computer-Related Crime       4

Box 2.     Information Technology and the Law    8

Box 3.     Cost-Effective Purchasing Options for Schools         12

Box 4.     Teaching Ideas from the Computer Learning
         Foundation's Responsible Computing Contest         19

Box 5.     Scenarios to Stimulate Technology Ethics Classroom 
         Discussion   23



ETHICAL USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN
EDUCATION:  
IMPORTANT ISSUES FOR AMERICA'S SCHOOLS
      Throughout the United States, educators
are finding ways to use computers and related
technologies to enhance student learning. 
However, as teachers and students become more
experienced with educational technology, they
are forced to deal with a variety of complex
ethical and legal issues.  Consider the
following scenarios, based on instances that
have occurred or could easily occur:
In an elementary school where the
budget for instructional supplies
has been drastically cut, teachers
are concerned that there is not
enough money to purchase software
for use with their students.  A
number of teachers make illegal
copies of commercial, educational
software programs, which they
distribute to their colleagues.
At a middle school where students
are encouraged to practice writing
skills by sending electronic mail
(e-mail) to one another over the
school network, one student
electronically sends an obscene
story to several of his friends,
who in turn circulate it widely
over the network.  When confronted
by school authorities, the original
student maintains that he has a
right to send personal mail of any
sort to his friends. 
A high school teacher sets up an
electronic bulletin board, a system
that allows students at different
sites to communicate using
computers and telephone lines. 
Over time, a network of students
learns how to use the bulletin
board to pull off what the students
consider to be "pranks."  These
abuses of the network include the
distribution of stolen long
distance telephone access codes and
the introduction of a virus
program which destroys data on the
system and eventually causes it to
crash.  Before reinstalling the
bulletin board, the teacher and the
students who have been assigned to
run the system struggle with what
rules to set for future users, how
to detect violators, and what
actions to take to enforce the new
rules.
A teacher shows her students how to
combine text, graphics, video
segments, digitized voice and music
to create computerized multimedia
presentations, which can then be
transferred to videotape.  The
students capture music from audio
CDs and use graphic images from a
commercial graphics library and
from books (using an image scanner)
to create their videotapes.  The
teacher distributes copies of the
videotape to colleagues from other
schools.  She worries that this
distribution may be a violation of
copyright law.
With help from telecommunications
skills learned at school, a
student uses his home computer to
gain unauthorized access to a
nationwide credit history database
and alters the data in some
records.  As a result, some credit-
worthy consumers experience
difficulty acquiring bank loans. 
When the student is caught by
authorities, debate ensues in the
community about the role the school
should play in preventing future
on-line abuse.
Students in a junior high English
class are asked to keep a daily
word processing diary.  When one
student is absent, another student
accesses and reads her diary
entries--entries that reveal
extremely private details of her
life.  After the English teacher
discovers this abuse, she
approaches others on the faculty to
discuss ways of defining and
protecting private files on the
network. 
      Situations like these are being
encountered today across our nation.  They
are evidence that students and, in some
cases, educators need both information and
guidance concerning the legal and ethical
implications of technology use. 
Unfortunately, few school systems have the
policies and educational programs in place to
address ethical issues as they relate to
technology
þissues such as:  physical and intellectual
property rights; the right to privacy; and
limitations on the right to free expression.
      This time lag between the introduction
of new technology and attempts to address its
ethical implications is nothing new.  Other
technological advances, such as nuclear
energy and the automobile, were implemented
in our society long before their responsible
use was fully considered.  Just as our
nation's schools now offer driver education
to encourage the responsible use of
automobiles, our schools need to address
responsible use of computers and related
technologies as well.
      This paper offers an overview of
technology ethics issues for teachers, school
administrators, and members of the community
concerned about school policy.  In this
paper, we explore answers to the following
questions:
      ù Why are technology ethics issues
        important for our society?
      
      ù How can information technology change
        what we think of as ethical behavior?
      
      ù Why do many students find the concept
        of intellectual property confusing?
      
      ù What can schools do to address these
        problems?

THE CHALLENGE
      Computer-related crime is a growing
problem in our society.  When criminal
justice officials speak of computer-related
crimes, they include fraudulent use of
telephone services, use of computer networks
to distribute stolen credit card numbers,
embezzlement via computer, automated teller
machine (ATM) fraud, unauthorized access to
computer networks, tampering with
electronically-stored records or programs
(either directly or through programs such as
viruses), and unauthorized copying or
distribution of software (Conly, July 1989). 
Such crimes are costing American business a
tremendous amount of money and adding to an
already overloaded criminal justice system. 
(See Box 1 on the impact of these crimes.)
      While the proportion of technology abuse
committed by school-age children is presently
small, there is concern about the adults that
today's computer-literate children will
become.  In a recent conference on computer-
related crime convened by the National
Institute of Justice, there was consensus
that:
. . . given increased computer use
in schools, the pool of potential
abusers is growing substantially. .
. .  The nature of the technology
can invite abuse if users are not
educated to understand the
implications and consequences of
their actions.

Box 1

The Impact of Computer-Related Crime
      
      Approximately one-fourth of Florida
businesses responding to a recent survey
reported having been the victim of a
computer crime (Herig, 1989).  A national
survey found that 84 percent of the
police chiefs in large, urban
jurisdictions expected computer crime to
have a serious impact on future
workloads.  Criminal justice
professionals predict that computer abuse
will steadily increase.  (Conly and
McEwen, January/February 1990).  
      
      Estimates of the financial losses
due to technology abuse vary widely,
depending on what forms of abuse are
considered, and on how much
underreporting by corporations is
assumed.  (Many companies are afraid of
the financial impact when the public
learns that their computer systems are
insecure.)  One recent report estimates
that such abuse may cost from $3 to $5
billion per year (Gerboth, Hoenecke, and
Briganti, 1989).a  
      _______________
      a  Some law enforcement officials
      estimate that the costs may be even 
          higher (Steven Purdy, 1991,
      personal communication).
      

      Besides blatant criminal acts, the
widespread use of computers and related
technology can lead to other forms of abuse
as well.  In particular, civil libertarians
worry about the increasing use of information
technology to invade people's privacy.  In an
era when stores use computers to collect
personal data about their customers, on-line
services track the information each consumer
accesses, and credit bureaus compile detailed
financial data on individuals (Gandy, Summer
1989), questions arise about who should
control and have access to all this personal
information.  Striking a balance between the
desire to exploit information technology for
economic gain and the need to protect
personal privacy requires an informed
citizenry.
      What values will today's children and
tomorrow's adults apply when taking advantage
of computers and other information
technology?  Our educational system bears a
major responsibility for helping to shape
these values.
HOW TECHNOLOGY CAN AFFECT ETHICAL AND
UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR
      Why, you might ask, is it necessary to
treat ethical behavior related to the use of
information technology any differently than
ethical behavior in general?  If families,
schools, and other social institutions are
successful at passing on to children our
society's traditional notions of right and
wrong, won't they apply them to the use of
information technology as well?  Not
necessarily.  
      While many of our traditional values can
be stretched to fit the new environment of
information technology (Johnson, 1990), some
aspects of this new environment can make the
fit difficult for people to see.  A child who
would never think of searching through a
classmate's desk to read her personal diary
might feel free to access and read the same
classmate's diary stored in a word processing
file on a network.  A teenager who would
never dream of robbing a bank, might
experience fewer qualms about attempting to
steal funds from the bank electronically. 
Why?  
      One explanation is that technology
removes us from the concrete object:  the
book, the actual money.  Another explanation
is that, by using the computer to commit an
unethical act, the perpetrator often believes
that he or she can escape detection.  As the
fear of being caught decreases, so does the
student's need to engage in soul-searching. 
      Information technology also introduces
psychological distance to the scenario
(Friedman, April 1990a).  When we interact
with others face-to-face and behave
unethically, we experience first-hand the
harm we have causedþand the resulting feeling
can reinforce our ethical norms.  When we use
information technology in a way that does
harm to others, the act feels less personal
because we can't see or hear the other person
in the exchange.  We may not experience him
or her as a person at all (DeMaio, 1990,
1991).  For instance, if a group of students
gains unauthorized access to a corporate
computer network, they might feel pleased
that they have succeeded in "beating the
system" but might never realize the
disruption they have caused to the employees
who run and use the network.  The fact that
information technology makes it easier to
target victims we don't know and who don't
know us, adds to the feeling of anonymity and
distance.
CONFUSION OVER INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
      Another challenge we face when teaching
about the responsible use of technology is
that we are forced to confront some complex
and often confusing issues.  While students
and educators may have a firm sense of right
and wrong when it comes to physical property,
the use of computers and related technology
more often concerns an intangible kind of
property--information as property.  And we
are confused about how to regard information. 
Is it the free-flowing life blood of a
naturally curious human societyþsomething to
be shared?  Or is information the private
property of its creators (DeMaio, 1990,
1991)?  This conflict in the way we view
information can be observed regularly in
classrooms.  On Tuesday, a small group of
students might be encouraged to share their
ideas in a computer-based, collaborative
writing project.  On Wednesday, one of these
students might be reprimanded for not working
independently on an individual writing
assignment.  Such mixed messages about
information as involving both shared and
private experience are a potential source of
confusion for students, if not directly
addressed in the classroom.
      The use of information technology to
both generate and disseminate information
electronically further complicates matters. 
Computers and related technologies make it
easy to write collaboratively (even at
multiple locations), compile information from
a variety of sources, copy it, revise it, and
destroy earlier versions.  As a result, it is
often difficult to determine who the author
is and who should have ownership rights to
the information (DeMaio, 1990).  And when
ownership is unclear, the ethical imperative
to respect the owner's property rights is
considerably weakened.  
      Even if we agree about who has
legitimate ownership rights to information,
theft of electronically-stored information
may seem less of an evil than theft of
tangible property.  If we steal a car, the
victim is deprived of its use.  However, if
we steal information from a computer network,
the victim usually still has access to the
information and may never even realize that a
theft has been committed.  The perpetrator
may believe that he or she hasn't harmed
anyone.  
      Another area of confusion concerns the
rights we gain when we purchase software. 
When we buy physical property (e.g., a
bicycle, clothing), we gain the right to do
virtually anything we want with it.  However,
in the world of intellectual property, our
rights are not nearly as broad.  For example,
unless we have express permission from the
software publisher, our rights do not extend
to unlimited duplication (Johnson, 1991).  
      As we attempt to make sense of these
complex issues, we cannot always trust our
intuition about what is ethical and legal. 
We cannot assume that students will take the
ethical high road
þor always know which is the high road.  Nor
can we count on parents to provide ethical
guidance in the realm of information
technology.  Often, parents do not have
sufficient experience with information
technology in their daily lives to fully
understand the ethical and legal issues
involved.  It is up to the schools to become
informed about the relevant legal and ethical
issues and to provide the guidance students
need.
WHAT SCHOOLS CAN DO
      Schools have a major role to play in
reinforcing traditional societal values and
helping students see how these values apply
to the use of information technology. 
Schools can also help prepare students to
maneuver intelligently through the uncharted
ethical waters they are bound to encounter in
the world of technology.
      Schools can take action on technology
ethics on two fronts:  setting school policy
that provides a model for students to follow,
and incorporating technology ethics issues
into the curriculum. 
Defining and Implementing School Policy
      The only way to ensure that the school
and its personnel serve as models in the
ethical use of information technology is to
establish clear, implementable policies
regarding such use.  In setting these
policies, decision-makers need to know how
technology is being used in the district and
anticipate how it will be used in the near
future.  Are local area networks in place? 
Are students and teachers planning to become
involved in telecommunications projects with
other sites (within or outside the district)? 
Do schools in the district have (or plan to
buy) equipment that makes it possible to
capture images, sounds and computerized
material and 
incorporate them into multimedia
presentations?  For each anticipated use, it
is necessary to be aware of the specific
challenges and ethical dilemmas that might
arise, and to become informed about the
relevant legal issues.  (See 
Box 2 for more about laws and legal issues.)
      

Box 2

Information Technology and the Law
      
      Federal Copyright Protection for
Computer Programs.  A 1980 amendmenta to
the 1976 Copyright Act gives computer
programs the same basic protection as
other original works of authorship.  The
law allows the creation of a copy for
archival (backup) purposes only.  If one
loads the program onto a hard drive, one
may keep the original for backup (U.S.
Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment, April 1986).  There is some
debate over whether multiple-loading, or
using the same disk version of a program
to load it in several computers at once,
violates copyright law (International
Society for Technology in Education,
March 1987).  Some experts believe it is
a violation because multiple-loading
actually creates many temporary copies of
the program.  
      
      Software License Agreements.  Under
software licensing agreements, schools do
not technically purchase software but
rather purchase the rights to use it in
the manner specified in the agreement. 
In the case of a site or network license,
schools are granted the right to
duplicate or widely distribute the
product.  (See Box 3 for more information
about such licenses.)  In addition, many
educational software publishers now
include a software agreement with every
individual software package they sell.  
With some products, the school indicates
its consent to the agreement by tearing
open the clear plastic shrink-wrapping. 
In other cases, an authorized school
official indicates consent by signing the
warranty card.  When some form of consent
is required and given, software licensing
agreements are generally assumed to be
legally binding.  Some states have passed
laws making the terms of such agreements
enforceable (Reed, July 1989).
      
      Fair Use.  The 1976 Copyright Act
provides for fair use exceptionsb to the
otherwise exclusive rights of copyright
holders to "distribute, perform, or
display copyrighted works (U.S. Congress,
Office of Technology Assessment, April
1986)."  The term fair use is not defined
in the statute but is generally
interpreted to include reproduction. 
Four factors are considered when
determining whether a use is fair:

  1.           The purpose of the use (non-
    profit educational purposes are
    usually considered acceptable)
  2.           The nature of the
    copyrighted work
  3.           The amount and proportion of
    the whole copyrighted work used (the
    smaller the proportion, the more
    likely the use will be considered
    fair)
  4.           The effect the use might
    have on the copyrighted work's market
    potential or value (U.S. Congress,
    Office of Technology Assessment, April
    1986) 

      The interpretation of these factors
has been left to the courts.  It is
difficult to predict how they will be
applied to educational uses of
electronically-stored databases and
library collections of graphics and
sounds.
      
      Unauthorized Access as Computer
Crime.  The Credit Card Fraud Act of
1984c prohibits the fraudulent use of any
card, plate, code, account number, or
other means of account access that can be
used alone or in conjunction with another
access device, to obtain money, goods,
services, or any other thing of value, or
that can be used to initiate a transfer
of funds.  The Counterfeit Access Device
and Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1984d
prohibits unauthorized access to computer
systems run or used by the federal
government or financial institutions, as
well as systems run by credit card
companies and consumer reporting agencies
(Purdy, 1990).  Most states have laws
that specifically prohibit unauthorized
access to computers (McEwen, June 1989).
      
      Legal Liability For School Computer
Networks.  Based on a review of relevant
law, judicial rulings, and legal opinion,
researcher Early Dowdy (August 1989)
warns that a school district or its
employees may be liable for personal
injury or property damage caused by
student actions or communications
involving a district-run computer
network.  Liability will vary from state
to state and may hinge on the adequacy of
supervision.  If students distribute
defamatory statements over a network,
they could be considered publishers under
libel law, and the school district could
be considered a republisher.  The 1988
Supreme Court ruling in Hazelwood School
District v. Kuhlmeiere gave public school
districts the power to control the
content of publications sponsored by
districts.  Regarding computer networks,
districts may have the corresponding
legal responsibility to wield this power,
in the form of monitoring (Dowdy, August
1989).
_________________
a  See 17 United States Code (U.S.C.)
Secs. 101 and 117.
b  See 17 U.S.C. Sec. 107.
c  See 18 U.S.C. Sec. 1029.
d  See 18 U.S.C. Sec. 1030.
e  See 484 U.S. 260 (1988).

      Effective implementation of whatever
policy is decided upon relies in large part
on teachers.  It is not possible to enforce
new rules or have a positive effect on the
attitudes of students without support from
the classroom teachers in the district. 
Ideally, the teachers most involved in
technology use should, from the start, play
an active role in formulating policy--helping
to define the problem areas and arrive at
realistic solutions.  Once policy is set, it
is crucial that it be communicated to all
faculty and staff members.  One effective way
of doing so is to give the discussion of
district policies on ethics and the law a
high priority when planning technology-
related staff development activities.
      Unauthorized Software Copying. 
Regardless of how computers are used in the
school, unauthorized copying of software will
remain tempting to some teachers and
students, and needs to be addressed via
policy.  Since the legal and ethical issues
are similar, districts may want to relate
their software copying policy to policies on
videotaping and photocopying.  In addition,
there are some useful resources that can help
educators focus on the specific legal issues
related to software use and duplication.
      One such resource is a policy statement
on software copyright issued by the
International Council for Computers in
Education (ICCE) in 1987.  Another is a
single-page handout, released by the Software
Publisher Association (SPA) in 1991, that
answers questions about software copying from
the industry's viewpoint.  Both resources
address such issues as the creation of back-
up copies and the use of local area networks. 
In addition, the ICCE statement offers a
model district software copyright policy and
some helpful hints for schools when setting
guidelines.  For example, recognizing that
most software programs come with a license
agreement that may place more specific
restrictions on use than copyright law
provides, the policy recommends that 
. . . only one person in the
district be given authority to sign
software licensing agreements. 
This implies that such a person
should become familiar with
licensing and purchasing rights of
all copyrighted materials
(International Society for
Technology in Education, 1987).

      Other steps for avoiding copyright
infringement include providing secure storage
for software, keeping up-to-date, centralized
records of all software that has been
legitimately purchased, and conducting
periodic "audits" to make sure that the
school is using only software that appears on
those records (Gamble and Anderson, September
1989).  
      The SPA offers a free Self-Audit Kit to
any institution that requests one.  Although
the kit is designed for businesses, it could
be helpful to you if your school uses utility
software (e.g., word processing and
spreadsheet programs) on computers with hard
disk drives.  In addition to outlining steps
for completing a self-audit, the kit includes
a software program that searches the hard
drive for many of the software applications
used most often by business and generates a
printed list, ready for comparison with the
district's records of software ownership.
      If your school distributes software
throughout a local area network, your
software license agreements must allow for
network use.  In addition, if the computer
workstations attached to the network are
equipped with floppy disk drives, the network
software should be set up so that users
cannot copy commercial software programs onto
floppy disks.
      Perhaps most important of all, policy-
makers should make sure that faculty and
students understand that unauthorized
software copying represents theft of someone
else's ideas and efforts.  Faculty and
students need to know what they can and
cannot do under copyright law and under
specific publisher's license agreements, as
well as the ethical rationale for the law and
license agreements--that software programs
are the software developers' and publishers'
intellectual property and that if users copy
software rather than purchase it, the
software developers' incentive to improve
products over time and to develop new, better
quality products is reduced.  Faculty and
students should also know in advance the
penalties they face for violating the policy. 
For instance, one district policy states that
"legal or insurance
protection . . . will not be extended to
employees who violate copyright laws." 
And some technology companies go so far as to
make unauthorized software copying by their
employees an offense punishable by dismissal.
      It is also important to anticipate the
consequences of a policy against unauthorized
copying and to consider how it relates to
other decisions about educational technology. 
One recent study suggests that if teachers
face the choice between unauthorized copying
and insufficient software resources for their
students, some teachers will choose to copy
(Friedman, April 1990b).  To address the
problem realistically, therefore, districts
need to offer teachers reasonable
alternatives.  Although eliminating illegal
copying may result in a decrease in the
amount of software available in some schools,
a district can help ensure broad access to
quality programs by actively pursuing legal
and affordable purchasing options.  (For
more information on purchasing options, see
Box 3.)  In addition, a number of schools and
districts have come up with innovative
approaches to fund-raising (e.g., students
teaching after-school technology courses to
the community; selling videocassettes of
school sports events) to supplement the
existing technology budget.

Box 3

Cost-Effective Purchasing Options for
Schools 
      
      Lab Packs.  Most educational
software publishers offer this option to
schools interested in buying multiple
copies of a program for use in a single
computer lab or classroom.  A lab pack
generally consists of several copies of
the program (five-packs and ten-packs are
common) accompanied by a single set of
documentation.  The entire lab pack costs
considerably less than purchasing an
equivalent number of individual software
packages.
      
      Site Licenses.  This is a cost-
effective approach to acquiring programs
that are to be widely used throughout a
school or district.  In granting a site
license, a publisher generally gives the
licensee the right to make unlimited
copies of the program for use within a
specific "site."  The site might be an
individual school building, a district,
or any other unit that the two parties
agree upon.  Some companies have a
standard rate they charge for a certain
type of site license; others base the
price on the number of potential users at
the site.
      
      Network Licenses.  Since
distribution of software via a local area
network can be seen as a form of
duplication (because the software is
available at more than one computer
workstation at a time), most networkable
versions of programs come with a license
that determines how the software is to be
used on the network.  Some licenses allow
for unlimited use of the program on a
single local area network.  Others define
the number of network users (or
workstations) that can have access to the
program at any one time.  (Such limits
are then enforced by the network
management system which alerts users who
attempt to access certain programs that
all available copies are currently in
use.)  Pricing varies but tends to be
much more cost-effective than the
purchase of the equivalent number of
individual copies intended for stand-
alone (non-network) use.
      
      Other Volume Discounts.  In addition
to lab packs and licenses, most
educational software companies offer
other discounts to institutions and
groups that make large purchases.  Some
companies deduct a percentage of the cost
for each order over a certain size;
others offer "district memberships" that
provide price breaks to participants
ordering many products over a longer
period of time.  Some larger entities--
occasionally including entire states--
have been able to negotiate special price
breaks from software companies by placing
especially large orders, or even by
helping with the development of new
products.  Although individual schools
and districts do not have the same buying
power as a large state, a number of them
have found ways of saving money by
grouping together to place bulk orders. 
Most educational software companies are
receptive to proposals for affordable
ways of making large purchases (Salpeter,
January 1988).
      
      Software Bundling.  Many educational
software companies offer special discount
pricing for "bundles" of software that
include several related titles or a
number of programs in a series. 
Increasingly, we are seeing partnerships
between different companies (often
including both hardware and software
providers) to deliver cost-effective
bundles addressing specific needs (e.g.,
teacher productivity, elementary language
arts).
      

      Fair Use.  As multimedia becomes a
regular part of the instructional process,
many teachers have questions about the
legality of incorporating commercially-
available information, including downloadable
text from CD-ROM databases, graphics
libraries available on floppy disks, and
digitized music recordings, into computer-
based presentations that they and their
students create.  While the fair use
exceptions to copyright law can be
interpreted as giving educators limited
rights to capture such materials for
educational purposes (essentially,
duplicating the source material by
incorporating it into a new presentation),
current law is not definitive about these
issues.  One logical policy solution is to
seek written permission from the publisher
whenever information is to be used in a
project that will be distributed beyond the
classroom.
      Plagiarism and Giving Credit.  Schools
will probably want to extend existing rules
against plagiarism to include all forms of
electronically-stored information.  Setting
district-wide standards for giving credit to
all information creators (e.g., authors,
graphics artists, publishers) when excerpting
electronically-stored information is a good
way to guard against even unintended
plagiarism.  For example, if a student
develops a multimedia project that
incorporates graphics from a graphics library
disk and text from a CD-ROM encyclopedia and
an online database, he or she should be
expected to cite all of these sources in a
bibliography that accompanies the project.
      Electronically-Stored Information As
      Property.  When information is stored in
      electronic form, it is subject to the
      same ethical standards as print-based
      information and tangible property.  Many
      school districts have policies in place
      regarding issues such as theft and
      vandalism.  They need to articulate how
      these policies should apply to
      technological versions of such
      wrongdoing.  For example, if vandalizing
      school walls is a suspendable offense,
      will the same action be taken if a
      student deliberately tampers with a file
      on the school's network?  If technology-
      based theft or vandalism seems less
      serious than the old-fashioned kind,
      consider the damage that can be done
      when students use computers, modems, and
      telephone lines to connect to district-
      wide, nationwide, or even worldwide
      networks.
      Confidentiality and Privacy.  Computer
      security expert Harry B. DeMaio (1991)
      notes that an effective program designed
      to reinforce respect for confidentiality
      and privacy must go beyond a general
      "statement of policy and an occasional
      awareness meeting."  He stresses that
      the program must address the specific
      needs of the target organization. 
      School districts can apply DeMaio's
      advice by identifying the different
      types of files that require a high
      degree of confidentiality, determining
      who should have access to each type of
      file and why, and then setting up a
      system for restricting unauthorized
      access.
      One area of particular concern for
schools is the amount of sensitive personal
data (e.g., the results of psychological
testing, financial information about
students' families, etc.) that a district
must store.  The responsible care of
confidential information is an important
legal and ethical issue for our society as a
whole.  As more and more data become stored
on interconnected computer networks,
passwords and access codes are replacing
locked doors and file cabinets.  A school
administrator who would never leave sensitive
data in an unsupervised, unlocked file
cabinet might not think to set up adequate
password protection for the same data on a
computer-based system.  One major
manufacturer of computers and school
networking software recommends at least three
levels of password protection when using
networks with students in grade four and
aboveþone level for students, one for
teachers, and one for administrators and
system managers.  Larger districts may need
even more levels of protection.
      When dealing with student-created files,
schools are faced with a different challenge: 
how to balance respect for an individual's
privacy with the responsibility for
monitoring student academic performance. 
Some school districts may choose to guide
this balancing act via policy.  For example,
they may want to define certain writing
(e.g., journals) to be private--off limits to
teachers without student permission. 
Whatever policy is set, it is important for
students to be informed about who will have
access to which of their files.  As
information technology advances, such privacy
issues are likely to multiply.  For example,
when using a network system that allows
teachers, from their teacher workstations, to
observe students while they work, the school
will want to set a policy of letting students
know when they are being observed.  
      Free Speech vs. School Responsibility. 
Some schools have faced the challenge of
balancing student free speech and the
school's quasi-parental role in the context
of student newspapers.  Regional, national,
and international computer-based school
networks will place schools in the position
of being electronic publishersþwith a vastly
larger potential audience than the local
community.  Some schools may want to specify
in policy what the school's role will be in
screening electronic publications for ethical
abuses such as defamation and profanity. 
      Telecommunications Policy.  The ethical
issues that arise when students use computers
to telecommunicate are not very different
from those related to the use of stand-alone
computers and local area networks.  However,
the impact of telecommunications abuse is
more widespread (since it involves students
at multiple sites) and the responsibility for
monitoring user behavior often falls outside
the local school.  In establishing an
effective policy in this area, decisionmakers
must consider the purposes for which students
will telecommunicate (e.g., use of an e-mail
system for pen-pals; use of a bulletin board
as a forum on controversial issues).  They
must also understand the standards,
procedures, and monitoring policies of the
online services that will be used.  
      School districts will want to ensure
that students are aware of accepted standards
of behavior on online systems (e.g.,
avoidance of defamatory or obscene remarks). 
Districts will also want to take a clear
stand against the use of telecommunications
to engage in software piracy or to violate
others' right to privacy.  In addition,
schools and districts should aggressively
discourage the illegal use of telephone and
telecommunications systemsþincluding
telephone fraud, unauthorized use of such
systems, and deliberate crashing of network-
based computer systems.  Finally, policies
and procedures should be in place that will
minimize the risk of computer viruses. 
Effective strategies include the use of anti-
virus software, discouraging the use of
outside or pirated software within the
schools, and controlling access to the
school's or district's own networks.
Incorporating Technology Ethics Issues Into
the Curriculum
      For technology ethics issues to have an
impact on students, they need to be addressed
in classrooms and computer labs as part of
the instructional process.  To encourage
this, some districts have included technology
ethics as a content strand in their formal
curriculum guidelines.  It is recommended
that experienced, technology-using teachers
be involved in the process of developing the
technology ethics curriculum strand.  Before
the curriculum strand can be effectively
implemented, the content and appropriate
instructional methods need to be addressed as
part of in-service, teacher education.
      What to Teach.  An overriding theme of
technology ethics instruction is that
information technology systems--including
hardware, software, and data--are extensions
of human society.  They are created by humans
and used by humans.  They can be used to
benefit others or to harm them.  Some
applications of information technology are
ethical and others are unethical.  Still
other applications are in the ethical "gray
zone."  Each individual has a moral
responsibility for how he or she uses
technology.
      Specific topics that school districts
may want to address as part of a technology
ethics curriculum include respect for privacy
and confidentiality, respect for information
technology systems as property, respect for
intellectual property rights, conflicts
between competing rights (e.g., freedom of
information vs. privacy), and the law as it
applies to the use of information technology.
      When to Teach.  Technology ethics issues
can be infused into the curriculum at
different grade levels.  Some districts
target technology ethics instruction at the
middle school or junior high grades--at an
age when many students develop sufficient
computer expertise to cause significant
damage.  However, many experts in the field
recommend beginning technology ethics
instruction when students are first
introduced to technology.  A recent survey
showed that more elementary students use
computers in school than high school students
(National Center for Education Statistics,
1991).  Paul Resta of the University of Texas
Learning Resource Center suggests a spiraling
ethics curriculumþstarting instruction in the
elementary grades and continuing throughout
the grade range at increasing levels of
sophistication.  
      Where in the Curriculum.  Technology
ethics have typically been introduced in
subject areas with a heavy technology focus,
such as computer literacy, computer
programming, and vocational education.  As
schools move to incorporate technology
throughout the curriculum, some believe that
ethics must be addressed whenever students
use technology.  Others recommend including
technology ethics as part of the social
studies curriculum, science or math
curriculumþso it will be assured of a
permanent curriculum home.  
      Instructional Strategies and Activities. 
A variety of instructional strategies and
activities have been tried, including
assigned readings, computer-based activities,
writing assignments, role-playing, and
classroom discussions.
      There are few published sources of
information on technology ethics intended for
students.  One exception is a textbook
recently published by South-Western
Publishing, entitled Telecommunications: 
Concepts & Applications (Cubbler, Olivo, Jr.,
and Scrogan, 1991), which includes a section
specifically focusing on ethics in
telecommunications.  Exsym, Inc. (1987)
publishes Ethics: Online, a kit designed to
help schools to teach telecommunications
ethics.  The kit includes a software
demonstration disk for illustrating ethics
topics during classroom discussion, a set of
positive ethical guidelines, information on
legal consequences of illegal online
behavior, and a set of ethical issues cards
that can be used to stimulate role-playing,
group discussion, or student writing.  Exsym
also publishes The Electronic Village (1989)
and The Electronic Mailbag (1990), which
introduce electronic bulletin boards and e-
mail systems, respectively.  Both products
cover ethical issues. 
      The Computing Teacher, ISTE's monthly
journal, published articles in 1984 that
discussed and provided examples of two
valuable instructional techniques: 
student role playing and classroom
discussions based on scenarios that involve
technology and present dilemmas with no easy
solution.  The information in these
articles can still be applied to technology
ethics instruction today.  For example, one
role playing exercise involves a situation in
which a student named Andy has purchased a
popular computer game.  A friend, who has
given Andy copies of other games in the past,
asks him for a copy.  Other participants in
the situation include a student whose mother
developed the computer game and another
student who is knowledgeable about copyright
law.  Groups of four students role play the
situation and then report the results to the
whole class.
      Some districts have developed their own
materials.  For example, a San Antonio,
Texas, district includes in its middle school
computer literacy curriculum a passage on
computer crime that ends with several ethical
questions.  The passage is presented as a
word processing file with many words
deliberately misspelled.  Students first use
the passage to practice spell-checking and
then go on to answer the ethical questions
(Paschal et al., undated).
      To encourage the development and sharing
of strategies for technology ethics
instruction, the Computer Learning Foundation
(CLF) organized a contest for teachers,
entitled Teaching Children to be Responsible
Computer Users, as part of Computer Learning
Month 1990.  (See Box 4 for some of the best
teaching ideas submitted by contest
participants.) 
Box 4

Teaching Ideas from the Computer Learning
Foundation's Responsible Computing
Contesta

First Place Idea:  Elementary School
Level 
      
      Develop a series of teaching units
based on the Computer Learning
Foundation's Code of Responsible
Computing (or a code your school or
district creates).  In each unit, begin
by introducing key concepts, including
definitions, relevant legal and
historical information (e.g., the right
to privacy as addressed in the Bill of
Rights and interpreted by the Supreme
Court), and examples of personal
relevance to students (e.g., other
students going through their desks or
lockers; someone borrowing their
belongings without permission; a fellow
student copying their school work).  Then
have students complete activity sheets
that ask thought-provoking questions,
such as:
      
     How would you feel if your rights
were violated?  What should the
consequences be for violators?

     Should all people's property be
respected and protected? What about their
ideas and information stored on a
computer?  Are there any exceptions?

Activity sheets can also engage students
in classification activities, such as
classifying places and information
sources as public or private (e.g.,
student's desk, principal's office,
hallway, library book, personal letter),
and classifying actions as requiring or
not requiring permission (e.g., reviewing
a classmate's story on disk, reading a
bulletin on a bulletin board).  Use the
worksheets as a basis for whole class
discussion. 

First Place Idea:  Secondary School Level

      
      Involve students in a mock trial of
a case involving unethical use of
technology.  Start by introducing the
case and relevant concepts, such as court
procedures and U.S. beliefs in trial by
jury and in the presumed innocence of the
accused until proven guilty beyond a
reasonable doubt.  Then have students
assume different rolesþlawyers, judge,
jury, witnesses, plaintiff, and
defendantþwith each student researching
the issues and positions of their roles. 
To integrate writing practice into the
activity, direct all students to take
notes during the trial.  Have the lawyers
prepare and present opening and closing
statements, and decide which witnesses to
call.  When the trial is completed,
organize a debate of the case and related
issues during the students' social
studies class.  
      
Other Winning Ideas

   ù      Have students view the movie,
    War Games.  Then have them rank the
    actions observed in the movie on a
    continuum from most harmful to least
    harmful.  Also have students research
    and discuss news stories involving
    computer crime.  Finally, hold a class
    discussion on the consequences of the
    computer crimes they identified
    þconsequences for the victims and for
    the perpetrators.

   ù      Review with the whole class
    different license agreements included
    in software packages.  Discuss how
    these agreements relate to existing
    laws.  Have students compare license
    policies of different companies.   

   ù      Develop a short musical
    presentation with raps, songs, and
    musical instruments to get students'
    attention while communicating the
    importance of responsible computing. 
    One teacher had characters in a
    musical costumed in garbage bags with
    cardboard characters attached.  The
    characters included "Computerbug," who
    deletes software and adds bugs to
    software programs; "Bender," who bends
    disks and snatches disks from the disk
    drive when the red/busy light on the
    disk drive is on; "Copycat," who
    copies everyone's disks and sends them
    to all of his friends; and "Snatcher,"
    who takes information and ideas from
    other people's disks and from other
    computers with a modem over telephone
    lines and makes them his own.  In each
    scenario, a talking computer monitor
    saves the day and explains to students
    why they want to keep these villains
    away from the computer.

   ù      Relate the teaching of computer
    ethics to the theme of pirates and
    Captain Hook.  Have students prepare
    stories that are to be shared with
    other students in the class.  After
    students submit their stories, present
    the stories on the bulletin board
    under the author, Captain Hook.  Have
    the class discuss how it feels to have
    someone else take credit for their
    work.  Also discuss the consequences
    if a present-day Captain Hook stole
    another person's ideas or work.

   ù      Have students list personal
    facts about their own lives and then
    discuss which facts they would be
    willing to share with people and
    organizations they don't know.  Have
    them decide whether this information
    should be available for sale to
    others.

   ù      Have students conduct surveys of
    other students' attitudes about
    computer ethics issues.

   ù      Have students develop posters or
    billboards to communicate positive
    ethical messages and standards
    regarding technology use to other
    students in the school.  

   ù      Issue student technology
    licenses after students have been
    introduced to and can demonstrate an
    understanding of responsible use of
    technology.  Require these licenses
    for students' use of the computer lab
    during class or study halls.  Suspend
    licenses for violations of responsible
    computing, with the length of time
    dependent on the severity of the
    infraction.

   ù      Invite speakers whose
    professions involve information
    technology for the school's career
    day, and ask them to address ethical
    issues in their presentations.
_________________
a  The information for this box was
provided by Sally Bowman,
     Executive Director, Computer
Learning Foundation.  The winning 
     entry for the elementary school
level competition was submitted 
     by Donald Bullock, Knolls Elementary
School, Simi Valley, CA.  
     The winning entry for the secondary
school level competition was 
     submitted by Alleta Baltes, Arapahoe
School District #38, 
     Arapahoe, WY.  Other contributing
teachers included:  David 
     Heath, Friends School of Baltimore,
Baltimore, MD; Jeanine 
     DeLay, Greeenhills School, Ann
Arbor, MI; Margaret Snyder, All 
     Saints Catholic, Pottsville, PA; 
Pamela Mitchell, Pleasant County 
     Middle School, Belmont, WV;  Suzy
Bagley, Kaley Elementary 
     School, Orlando, FL; Louise Kaan,
Dildine Elementary School, 
     Cheyenne, WY; and Robbi Ray, Bruce
Middle School, Louisville, 
     KY.  


      Another learning activity idea comes
from CLF's Storybook on Responsible Computing
competition for students.  Teachers
prepared students for writing by introducing
the CLF Code of Responsible Computing and
leading class discussions on the different
legal and ethical issues addressed in the
Code.  Then the students were directed to
create storybooks (fiction or non-fiction)
with the theme of responsible computing. 
Storybooks included heroes and heroines
championing positive computer ethics; student
fables, each with a moral involving computer
ethics; and serious essays on the importance
of responsible computing.  
      Some advocates of technology ethics
instruction recommend that students gain
experience with the decisionmaking involved
in running a computer network.  They suggest
that groups of students run a class-wide
electronic bulletin board and e-mail system
on a rotating basis--and have the
responsibility for deciding what should and
should not be done on the network.  This
opens up the possibility of confrontingþin a
controlled environmentþmany of the technology
ethics issues that occur in the real world.  
      Educators who have used hypothetical
      scenarios in elementary through junior
      high school find that the best scenarios
      are ones that compare technology abuse
      with familiar situations to which
      traditional values can be applied or
      that make it easy for students to
      identify with the victims of abuse.  For
      example, a teacher who wanted her class
      to explore the ethics of unauthorized
      software copying, had her students
      imagine that they were members of a rock
      band that had been writing songs and
      practicing for two years, and finally
      had a hit recording.  The teacher asked
      her students to discuss how they would
      feel if someone bought their CD and made
      copies for everyone they knewþor if a
      lot of people started making copies. 
      She then moved the discussion to
      software copying, providing enough
      background information about software
      publishing so that the students could
      draw the ethical analogy.  (See Box 5
      for additional scenarios.)
Box 5

Scenarios to Stimulate 
Technology Ethics Classroom Discussion
      
      Theft of Intellectual Property.  A group
of students develops a design for a new,
exciting product (e.g., a toy).  The plans
are kept in one student's locker or are
stored on a computer network.  Someone breaks
into the locker or network, steals the plans,
and manufactures the toy.a
      
      Invasion of Privacy.  A boy and a girl
like each other a lot and have been
exchanging love poems, either by passing
notes in the school lunch room or by sending
each other messages on a network e-mail
system.  Another student gets hold of the
notes from the students' desks or invades the
e-mail system and reads the poems.
      
      Destruction of Private Property.  A
student has been working on a school report,
stored as a file on a computer network.  When
she accesses the file, she discovers that
every fifth word is missingþsomeone has
messed with her file!  After school, she goes
to unlock her bike from the bike rack and
discovers that the pedals are missing.
__________
a  Carol Brummer, Canyon Middle School, New
Braunsfel, TX, 1991, 
     (personal communication).

      
      At the high school level where students
are capable of handling more complex issues,
teachers may want students to explore
emerging ethical dilemmas involving
technology.  Some issues to focus on might be
      ù the ability to combine information
        from different electronic data sources
        to develop data profiles on
        individuals or neighborhoods
        þusually for marketing purposes;
        permission for this use of the data is
        rarely sought or given
      
      ù the practice of some commercial
        computer network services to monitor
        and censor user communication on their
        electronic bulletin boards and e-mail
        systems
      
      ù the reliance on computer-based systems
        for important societal functions
        (e.g., air traffic control), despite
        the fact that such systems are subject
        to both human error and mechanical
        failure (Forester and Morrison, 1990)
      
      ù the possibility that government
        information may someday be available
        only in electronic form accessible via
        computer-based systems

      ù the possibility that laws against
        unauthorized access or use of
        electronically-stored data may prevent
        "whistle-blowers" from informing
        journalists about corporate or
        government wrongdoing
      
      ù the development of technology-based
        systems to replace human workers and
        the resulting problems related to job
        displacement
      
      Issues such as these can be effectively
introduced through scenarios.  Deborah G.
Johnson (1990), of the Department of Science
and Technology Studies at Rennselaer
Polytechnic Institute, recommends that
scenarios should be presented in a context
that includes extensive classroom discussion. 
She suggests that teachers should plan for
such discussions by developing questions and
discussion guidelines to accompany each
scenario.
      Informal Curriculum.  Finally, it is
important to remember that every classroom
and computer lab has an informal technology
ethics curriculumþthe behavior of teachers
whom students may emulate, and the rules for
responsible technology use that students are
required to follow.  School policy--one that
includes teacher education--can help ensure
that teachers serve as models of legal and
ethical behavior.   Rules for ethical use of
technology can become lifetime habits,
especially if students understand and
internalize the values behind the rules
(Scrogan, February 1988).
SUMMARY
      As the use of information technology
continues to riseþboth in our schools and
throughout our societyþthe need to address
the ethics of technology use grows.  The
potential for criminal abuse is on the rise,
and some applications of technology challenge
our nation's core values (e.g., the right to
privacy; the right to free expression).
      It is not new for our educational system
to teach about ethics, but as the use of
educational technology increases, so does the
complexity of the task faced by educators. 
Although many of our traditional societal
values can be extended to the use of
information technology, the nature of this
technology (e.g., the psychological distance
it creates) may make it more likely that,
without educational intervention, some
individuals will act unethically.  Adding to
the challenge is many people's confusion
about intellectual property rights,
especially as they apply to information that
is stored and disseminated electronically.  
      Schools have a vital role to play in
helping our children understand how existing
values, policies, and laws apply to a rapidly
changing, information technology-dependent
world.  To be effective in this role,
educational policy-makers must understand the
ethical dilemmas and legal issues raised by
each of the information technologies in use
in schools.  They must set realistic policies
that comply with the law and that model
ethical behavior for all involved.  And they
must educate teachers about important
technology ethics issues and must clearly
communicate related school policies to both
faculty and students.  Equally important, by
incorporating the study of technology ethics
into the standard curriculum, schools can
ensure that the leaders and decisionmakers of
tomorrow will be equipped to make the
difficult ethical decisions they will
undoubtedly face.REFERENCES
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Cerow, W.P. (1989)  Unethical & illegal
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Computer Learning Foundation (1990-1991) 
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Conly, C.H. (July 1989)  Organizing for
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Conly, C.H and McEwen, J.T. (January/Febrary,
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Cubbler, C.D., Olivo, J.J., Jr., and Scrogan,
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DeMaio, H.B. (1991)  Information ethicsþit
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DeMaio, H.B. (1990)  Information ethics, a
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Dowdy, E. (August 1989)  School computer
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Exsym, Inc. (1990)  The electronic mailbag. 
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Exsym, Inc. (1989)  The electronic village. 
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Appendix 

List of Associations and Agencies to Contact
for Further Information


Association for Computing Machinery
11 W. 42nd Street   3rd  Fl.
New York, NY   10036
      212-869-7440

Association for Educational Communication and
Technology
Suite 820
1025 Vermont Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC   20005
      202-347-7834

Computer Learning Foundation
2165 Park Boulevard
Palo Alto, CA   94306
      415-327-3347

Data Processing Management Association
505 Busse Highway
Park Ridge, IL   60068
      708-825-8124

Division of Technology Development
Texas Education Agency
Contact:  Connie Stout
1701 North Congress Ave.
Austin, TX   78701
      512-463-9091


International Society for Technology in
Education 
1787 Agate Street
Eugene, OR   97403-1923
      503-346-4414

Institute for Certification 
of Computer Professionals
Suite 268
220 E. Devon Avenue  
Des Plaines, IL   60018
      708-299-4227

Institute of Electrical and 
Electronic Engineers
345 E. 47th Street
New York, NY   10017
      212-705-7900

National School Board Association
1680 Duke Street
Alexandria, VA   22314
      703-838-6770

Software Publisher Association
Suite 700
1730 M Street, N.W.   
Washington, DC   20036
      202-452-1600